Tips and Guides

The quail, locally known as pugo, is a small game bird found in temperate and tropical regions throughout the world.

The true or Old World quail is a migratory bird that can be found in Europe, Asia, Africa and Australia. The American quail (sometimes called “patridge”) and is non-migratory.

In the Bible, (Exodus, Chapter XVI, verse 13), quail was served by the Lord to the fleeing Israelites. During the present critical period of population explosion, with rampant malnutrition and unrelenting price rises for both cereal and meat, the quail is an answer to the consumer’s need for cheap eggs and meat, just as it was during that critical Biblical time.

BREEDS

Many people are unfamiliar with the breeds of quail being raised in the Philippines Today. Some are surprised to learn that there is a white quail.

All the popular breeds used for eggs and meat commercial production are sub-varieties of the Corturnix species, which is able to produce eggs throughout the year.

The different breeds found in the Philippines are:

1. Native – Found in the fields and forests; the common “pugo”. This quail is not suitable for commercial production.

2. Japanese Taiwan – Popularly known as “Chinese Quail”. It has dark brown feathers mixed with white and gray. The female has a gray underside flecked with darker feathers, while the male has many reddish feathers on the underside.

3. Japanese Seattle – This is as an American breed similar to the Japanese Taiwan; it has jersey (rust-maroon) feathers at the base of the heads.

4. Negro – Black or grayish black.

5. Tuxedo – Black with a white spot on the breast.

6. Silver – White with black eyes; from the Canaan Valley, Egypt.

7. Brown Cross No. 1

8. Brown Cross No. 2

The Japanese Taiwan breed is commonly raised in the Philippines. However, its eggs are small compared to those of improved breeds, and egg production is lower. It has also been found to be susceptible to respiratory diseases. The six other breeds listed are all good. They are heavy egg producers and are resistant to diseases.

For beginners, the Japanese Seattle is recommended as it is a heavy egg producer and the male can be easily recognized by the color of its feathers as early as 30 days of age. This means a saving on feeds, as the male can be culled and sold as broilers.

To insure success, select a good breed and buy stock from a reliable breeder. Good chicks will cost about P 8.50 day old. Some selected breeders may cost as much as P 35.00 each.

Quail are easy to raise and the housing required is not as complicated as for chickens. A 4 feet x 8 feet x 1foot high cage can house 250-300 layers. The flooring and all sides are made of 1/2-inch mesh welded wire while the top or cover should be of lawanit to prevent the birds from flying. The quail has a tendency to fly upwards if the top of the cage is made of mesh wire, and this may cause head injuries.

Cages can also be made smaller (2 feet x 4 feet x 1 foot) and stacked in four decks, with 3 to 4 inches between the decks. A large number of birds can thus be raised in a very small space. The cage can be placed under any roof, under an elevated house, or in a garage.

The cages should be rat-proof; rats are the greatest enemy of the birds.

FEEDS AND FEEDING

Quail can be fed with any available chicken feed at the rate of one kilo for every 50 quail layers per day. Add finely ground shell (limestone) to produce stronger and thicker egg shells. Best results were found when chicken broiler starter mash (22% protein) was fed to both layers and broilers.

A 1/2-inch mash welded wire should be cut to fit the feed trough and laid directly on the feed to prevent the birds from scratching out the feeds. Another one inch mesh welded wire should be used to cover the trough to prevent the birds from dusting themselves with the feeds.

Keep feed in the troughs all the time, as feeding should be continuous 24 hours every day to get higher egg production. Light should be provided so the birds will continue to eat at night. If this is done, some birds may lay two eggs in 24 hours.

CARE AND MANAGEMENT

Quail, unlike some other fowl, are not delicate birds. They can be raised in any suitable and comfortable place in the house. The birds do not easily contract fowl diseases common to poultry, especially chickens.

Vaccination is not needed and the drugs usually given to chickens do not have to be added to quail feed or drinking water. However, should any disease outbreak occur, the drugs used for chicken can be used. Deworming of the breeders is done at least every four months or three times a year. Use the same dewormers as for chickens, but follow the direction on the package for smaller birds.

INCUBATION

Normally, “pugo” will hatch their own eggs, but the imported breeds mentioned will not brood to incubate their eggs; an incubator must therefore be used. For a table-type electric-operated incubator, a temperature of 1010 – 1030 F should be maintained during the incubation period. For the forced-draft incubators, the temperature should be kept at 98-1000 F. Further instructions on operating an electric incubator will be found at the end of this pamphlet.

Candling is done on the 11th day of incubation. From setting, quail eggs will hatch on the 18th day.

BROODING

The brooder should be a closed compartment, 2 ft. x 4 ft. x 6 inches. The flooring, top and three of the sides should be made of lawanit or boards while the front side should be made of 1/4-inch mesh welded wire for ventilation. This is adequate for 500 chicks. A bigger brooder may be made to fit the raiser’s requirements.

A 50-watt bulb should be placed a little away from the middle of the brooder to allow room for the chicks to stay away from the heat source in case there is over-heating in the brooder.

Brooding procedures are similar to those for day-old chicks:

1.Prepare the brooder; lay old newspapers on the floor of the brooder, covering it entirely.

2.Prepare a drinking trough; you can improvise with plastic glasses and plastic covers, or lids large enough to overlap 1/4 of an inch around the glass rims. Bore a hole in the top rim of the plastic glass to allow water to flow out when inverted over the plastic cover. This makes a good drinking trough for the chicks. Commercial waterers for chickens with their deep, wide edges are not advisable for pugo because they might drown in them.

3. Spread feeds for the chicks over the newspapers and place the waterers away from the light bulb. Leave the space under the bulb free for the chicks to lay down or crowd together. Do not place feeds in that area as the chicks will lay down and blind themselves while under the heat of the bulb.

4. See to it that there is always plenty of water. Replace feeds and water as they are consumed.

5. Observe the chicks – if they crowed under the bulb, there is insufficient heat; if they move away from the bulb, there is too much heat. Remedy the situation by changing the bulb, as required, using a lower watt bulb for less heat.

6. On the sixth or seventh day, move the chicks to another compartment but with the short sides open (screened with wire mesh). The chicks now need more space; only 250 to 300 will fit in a 2 feet x 4 feet x 6 inches cage.

7. When the birds are 15 days old, transfer them to growing cages. By this time they are fully feathered.

SEXING

On the 30th day, males of the Japanese seattle breed can already be recognized by their feathers, so they can be segregated and sold as broilers. Males of the other breeds can be recognized by their throaty hoarse cry and the protruding upper vent with a cream-like substance coming out of the vent when it is pressed upwards.

Females have a blackish or grayish vent and a sharp, high pitched, long shrilling, melodious chirp.

After 41 days from hatching, the birds should start laying eggs. Remove the males not intended for breeding and the undeveloped females and sell them as broilers.

BREEDING

The early laying birds may be segregated for use as breeders, while late layers are raised for table egg production.

Experience has shown that if female quail do not answer the throaty cry of the male they are not happy. The right proportion of males in the flock is necessary for a high percentage of hatchability. The usual ratio is 70 females to 30 males. Too many males in the flock is indicated when females have bare backs with the feathers worn off, while an inadequate number of males causes fighting among the females.

However, females will not fight if there is no male at all among them, as proved when table egg layers are kept separately with no males.

MARKETING

The demand for quail eggs and meat is so great that marketing is no problem. This is a project where buyers come to you, especially for the eggs. In streets, stores, restaurants, hotels and bars, quail eggs and meat are in great demand.

Quail eggs can be sold fresh, boiled, salted, pickled or as balut. Quail meat can be served barbecued, fried, as adobo, guinataan, or in any way chicken is cooked.

Some reputable bakeries use quail eggs for baking and for making leche flan.

Hard-boiled eggs are sold by hawking vendors in plastic bags. The popular nido soup in restaurants comes to your table garnished with quail eggs.

CONCLUSION

With the advent of the “instants” like instant coffee and tea, soft drinks, instant soup, etc., quail eggs and meat can also follow.

From egg to egg production is barely two months, or 57 days to be exact. For meat production, the time is even shorter. A quail egg is hatched in just 16 days and the hen is ready to lay eggs after 41 days. Isn’t that instant?

Nutrition-wise, this is an answer to the quest for a source of economical protein for malnourished children.

Economically, it is a very promising project. If you raise 100 layers with 70% egg production there will be 70 eggs a day. The birds will consume two kilos of feeds a day, say worth P 3.00. If the eggs are sold at P 0.10 each, there will be P 7.00 from daily sales. Less the P 3.00 feed cost, this means P 4.00 profit daily. Multiply this by twice or thrice the number of layers. Won’t it be very nice additional income? Why don’t you try it?

HOW TO OPERATE AN ELECTRIC TABLE-TOP INCUBATOR/HATCHER FOR QUAIL

In order to get a higher hatching efficiency, the electric incubator/hatcher should be properly operated. The following guidelines should be strictly observed in the incubation of quail eggs.

1. Check and recheck wire and wire connections of the incubator. Check also the electric voltage (220V) before plugging in the incubator. Fill all water pans for humidity control and place egg trays without eggs inside the incubator.

2. Run the incubator for two days or until the desired temperature (1010 to 1030F) is maintained. Slowly adjust the thermostat by turning the control knob clockwise to lower the temperature and counter clockwise to raise the temperature. Usually, the incubator is pre-tested and the thermostat adjusted before shipment, but slight adjustments will still be needed, depending on the place and weather conditions.

3. Arrange the eggs in the egg tray, allowing room for turning. Do not load the tray tightly as the eggs may be broken when turning.

4. Before placing the trays of eggs in the incubator, check the water pans under the trays for humidity control. These should be properly covered with wire screen to prevent drowning if a chick drops from the egg tray.

5. On top of the incubator, place a reminder chart of the activities to carry out during incubation:

a. Turn the eggs three times a day by passing the hands lightly over the eggs to the right in the morning, to the left at noon, and downward in the afternoon.
b. Candle on the 11th day.
c. Expect hatching on the 16th to the 18th day.

Other features may be added to the chart, like percentage of infertile eggs and hatched chicks.

1. Three days before hatching, stop turning the eggs. On hatching day, when the chicks are out of the shells, the air vents on top of the incubator should be fully opened to increase ventilation and to hasten drying of the feathers.

2. Transfer the chicks to the brooder after their feathers are dry on the 17th or 18th day.

3. Clean the trays. Remove all egg shells and late-hatch or unhatched eggs in preparation for the next batch of eggs for incubation.

Source: da.gov.ph

“Coffee is the source of happiness and wit,” said King Louis XIV who after experiencing coffee’s excellent taste and distinctive aroma began to recognize the value of it.

In the Philippines, the coffee industry began in 1740 during the Spanish regime. It is considered one of the high-value crops in the local and foreign markets. Coffee is among the top ten agricultural crops in terms of value.

Coffee registered a total production of 123,934 metric tons valued at P6,818.84 million in 1995. Today, we are exporting to ICO and non-ICO member countries which include Japan, Singapore, West Germany, Netherlands, Malaysia, Muscat Oman, United Arab Emirates, Pakistan and U.S.A. These countries alone account for 97 percent of the total Philippine coffee export.

AGRONOMIC CHARACTERISTICS

Coffee trees require a rich, moist loose, well-drained soil best composed of organic matter, decomposed mold, and disintegrated volcanic rock; a well-distributed rainfall of about 40 to 70 inches annually with peak wet season’ high humidity; seven hours of sunshine daily; and plenty of mist and moderate winds.

Coffee trees vary greatly in sizes from dwarf trees to thick-trunked forest giants twenty feet or more in tropic. Generally they are restricted to areas with a medium average annual temperature of 70oF, not lower than 55oF and much above 80oF.

VARIETIES

Arabica is characterized by wavy leaf margin, light green leaf color, thin leaves, pulp and parchment, known as ” kapeng tagalog.” Yields 500-1,000 kg of clean dry coffee beans per hectare. It could be grown productively in cooler places with an elevation ranging from 1,200 to 1,800 meters above sea level.

Robusta is characterized by large umbrella shaped growth with thinner leaves which have more wavy margins. The berries are borne in heavy cluster with the pulp and parchment. Yields 1,200 kg of clean dry coffee beans per hectare. It could be grown in areas with an elevation ranging from 600 to 1,200 meters above sea level.

Excelsa has wide leaves that are thicker than Robusta but thinner and smoother and more rounded than Liberica with smooth edge. Young leaves are usually shiny with bronze violet color. The berries are borne in heavy cluster, varying in size and usually bigger than Arabica but smaller than Liberica. Pulp and parchment are thicker than the Leberica. Yields 1,000 kg of clean dry coffee bean per hectare. It could be grown from sea level to 600 meters above sea level.

Liberica is locally known as “kapeng barako” because it produces the biggest berry. It is rounded and are borne signly or in small clusters. Has thicker leaves than Excelsa and twice as long as Arabica. The pulp is thick and the parchment is more woody. It also characterized a very strong pharmocopical taste and flavor. It is tolerant to drought and grows in a wider type of soil. Yields 1,000 kg. Of clan dry coffee beans per hectare.

TECHNOLOGY

Seed Preparation

a. Coffee is grown from seeds;
b. Gather seeds from disease and pest-free, high yielding trees;
c. Grow coffee plants in the nursery to produce better seedlings. They nursery be located in the plantation or nearby and accessible to water supply;
Three-fourth kg (i.e. 750 gm) of quality seeds is enough to plant a hectare;
d. A 50% allowance of seeds must be considered for ungerminated seeds, poor seedlings and for replanting;
e. Select viable seeds, stir berries in a bucket of water and remove floaters. Those that sink are the good ones;
f. Remove pulp by hand or pulping machine, then soak beans in water for 24 hours to hasten the removal of mucilage;
g. Wash beans and discard floaters. Air dry in well-ventilated room for least 4 days;
h. Keep dried parchment in cool dry place or mix with charcoal to preserve its viability;
i. Germination bed must be 1 meter wide and of convenient length. To avoid flooding, raise bed 15 cm from ground level;
j. A 1 x 20 m plot can accommodate one ganta of seeds;
k. Sow seeds on shallow rows at ¾ inch deep and cover with fine soil;
l. Water the seedbed regularly but not too wet and partially shade plants from sunlight;
m. This out and prick seedlings (transplant to another seedbed/plastic bags) or when 2-3 pairs of leaves have developed.

Vegetable Propagation

1. Coffee can also be propagated asexually;
2. Clone is used for coffee propagation. It is a part of a plant that is made to reproduce an offspring which carries all the qualities of its parents.
3. Split lengthwise into two halves of a fingersized vertical shoot of about one foot long with 4-6 nodes to produce a clone. Partially cut leaves before splitting;
4. Set modal cutting in germination box 1×2 inches apart and 1 inch deep, then place boxes in germination chamber. Nodal cuttings will produce roots and shoots within 45 days;
5. Prick seedlings into individual plastic bags with soil.
6. Full-grown seedling with 4-6 pairs of leaves could be attained within 6-8 months;
7. Coffee plants raised from nodal cuttings bear fruits 18 months after transplanting, earlier than plants grown from seeds.

Establishment of Plantation

Intensive clearing is necessary for newly opened areas (forest area). Plow and harrow twice open field to check weed growth. Mark places where holes are to be dug. Recommended spacing are as follows:

Variety
ARABICA
Distance in Meters
3 x 1 to 3 x 2 m
2 x 2 x 2 x 3 m double row

Variety
ROBUSTA
Distance in Meters
3 x 1.5 to 3 x 3m
2 x 2 x 2 x 4m double row

Variety
Liberica & Excelsa
Distance in Meters
4 x 5 to 5 x 5.5m

Fertilization

The general recommendation for non-bearing trees in the absence of soil and tissue analysis, is an equal amount of NPK and ammonium sulfate or urea from 250-300 grams per tree per year; and for bearing trees (7 years and above) 1 kilo of 14-14 per tree per year plus ures sidedressed at the rate of 300 grams per tree per year.

Non-bearing trees (1-3 years old) make shallow canal furrow 5 cm deep around the plant; place recommended fertilizer in continuous band and cover with soil.

Bearing trees (7 years old)-localized placement is recommended for sloping land. Apply fertilizer in holes or trenches made around trees between outside of the crown and onehalf meter from the base. Broadcast fertilizer 0.5m for level land.

Pruning

Removal of unnecessary branches (excess, old and dead branches) and undesirable sprouts. Pruning regulates the height of the plants, facilitates harvesting and other field operations, promotes better aeration and light penetration. This is best done before general flowering or after harvest.

Common Pests and Control

Coffee Berry Borer most destructive and hardest to control. Attacks all stages of fruit after berries become mungo-size. Infested young berries turn from normal green color to yellow orange and shortly afterwards, fruit falls prematurely. Presence of empty or partially filled fruits underneath tree is a sure sign of infestation.

Coffee Leaf folder larvae feed on leaves and sometime attack flowers and fruits. Adult is a small moth with light brown forewings. The eggs are laid in clusters on leaves. Development period is 5-6 weeks.

Control: Collect and destroy infested berries before and after harvest. Pick up all berries, including those that fall on the ground, to eliminate breeding and feeding sites of insects. Spray Endosulfan at recommended rates at 14 to 21 days interval or 4 to 5 times spraying during fruiting season. The first spraying should be done when the berries attain the size of a mungbean seed.

Common Diseases and Control

Coffee Rust the most prevalent and destructive disease of coffee, Small, yellowish spots appear on lower surface of leaves; as spots enlarge, powdery yellow to orange spores are produced. Affected leaves drop and tree may die. To prevent, use resistant strains, spray susceptible varieties with copper fungicides at 2-3 week intervals at start of heavy rains.

Die-Back is characterized by drying of branches and twigs from to and downwards. Appearance of spots with concentric lines on both surfaces of seedlings, twigs, and berries. If severe affected, leaves fall, twig and branches dry. To control, maintain vigor of trees by fertilizing with the right kind and amount of nutrients at proper time; regulate plant growth to prevent overbearing by pruning and/or shade.

HARVESTING

Maturity of berries is 6 to 8 months after blooming but varies on the environmental factors from region to region. In Mindanao, Arabica flower in January to May and berries are harvested in August to December. In Luzon, coffee trees bloom just after the first heavy rains in May and June, Arabica and Robusta berries are harvested in late December to March; Excelsa and Liberica later.

Individually pick berries (i.e priming) to avoid presence of pedicels. For quality beans, harvest only matured berries (i.e. berries turn red from its ground color.)

Transplanting

Coffee seedlings are ready for transplant when 6 pairs of leaves have been fully developed and with no lateral branches yet. Dig holes and transplant in the field at the start of the rainy season. This will give sufficient time for young plants to establish roots before dry season sets in. Dig hole wide and deep enough to accommodate ball of earth with roots intact. Return topsoil in the hole, then add tablespoons phosporous fertilizer, and mix thoroughly.

Source:www.da.gov.ph;photo from http://www.satoyama-net.com

If you have missed the Pagcor Franchise on a Lotto outlet, don’t despair, you can now apply for a Spin2Win outlet in your area. The capital outlay is around 20T pesos only. This small scale betting station is believed to be lucrative.

Spin2Win is an online gaming business approved by PAGCOR, therefore it is legal. Upon approval of your application, Pagcor themselves will set up your betting business stations; at present there are two betting games offered, played online roulette style: Magic 5 and Lucky Wheel.

As an agent, Spin2Win retailers earn generous commissions from daily sales, as well as enjoy the chance to win millions 3 x weekly, and thousands hourly by patronizing the Magic 5 weekly jackpot game and the Lucky Wheel hourly jackpot game.

For more details you can speak to their sales representatives, at (02) 8561361 or (02) 8190066 or 0921 7780022.

For verification with the concerned government agency, you may call the Philippine Amusement and Gaming Corp. (PAGCOR) at 2420121 local 777 and look for either Mr. Eric Rubio or Mr. Paolo de Castro at the Research and Development Department (RDD).

HOW TO APPLY:

If you are interested to sell Spin2Win games to the public, and earn a 9% commission on total sales, you need to apply with PAGCOR for a Certificate to Operate a Spin2Win Betting Station.

Each station is supplied with a betting terminal that is used to place bets on the Magic 5 or Lucky Wheel games and other games to be offered to the public by PAGCOR.

Aside from the betting terminal, each agent is also supplied with equipment and supplies for the games, such as bet slips and thermal rolls, connectivity for the terminal, marketing materials like posters and flyers, and an attractive glow sign, among others.

The minimum requirement for agents is a store space of 3-4 square meters that is located at least 300 meters away from the nearest school, church or place of worship, and other betting stations operated by PAGCOR.

To apply for a Certificate to Operate with PAGCOR:

1. Get in touch with us through the numbers posted above or by sending us email at raul@kirschnergames.com
2. Secure a Letter of Intent from us.
3. Fill up Letter of Intent and provide the following:
4. Sketch/map of proposed site/location.
5. Picture of proposed site/location.
6. TIN number of applicant.
7. P1,000.00 inspection fee to be paid to PAGCOR.

You can also choose to apply at PAGCOR directly by calling the number posted above.

YOUR INITIAL INVESTMENT: P19,040.00 only.

This will pay for the following PAGCOR-approved charges:

Betting terminal
AVR/Power strip
Installation fee
Connectivity installation
DSL or GPRS connection
Terminal insurance
Operator Training Fee
Betting credits
Marketing materials

Source: http://playspin2win.com/agents.jsp

A continuation of this blog under a new name and on its own domain and hosting has been created at Negosyo Guides and Tips. This site will contain most of the business tips, guides, how to’s covering aquaculture, agriculture, home business, franchising, manufacturing etc. from Pinoy Negosyo Techs. Posts that you cannot find in Negosyo Guides and Tips, are still posted here. So please feel free to visit me at the new site, and here. A forum site for Negosyo Tips and Guides is underconstruction – we will post a note here ones the Forum site is up.

Pinoy Negosyo Techs will continue because “ako ay nanghihinayang” of the time and effort I spent here. Besides, this site can serve as back up of the posts made over the past years, whatever that means.

Welcome to Negosyo Guides and Tips.

Ginger is an upright tropical plant (Zingiber officinale Rosc.) that grows to about 1 metre tall. It originated in India and is now produced in tropical climates throughout the world; China, Taiwan, Nigeria, Jamaica, Mauritius and Australia are the major producers. The largest markets for ground ginger are the United Kingdom, Yemen, the USA, Middle East, Singapore and Malaysia. The edible parts of the plant are the rhizome (at the base of the stem) and the young tender stem.

Forms of ginger

Ginger is usually available in three different forms:

* Fresh (green) root ginger
* Preserved ginger in brine or syrup
* Dried ginger spice.

Fresh ginger is usually consumed in the area where it is produced, although it is possible to transport fresh roots internationally. Both mature and immature rhizomes are consumed as a fresh vegetable.

Preserved ginger is only made from immature rhizomes. Most preserved ginger is exported. Hong Kong, China and Australia are the major producers of preserved ginger and dominate the world market.

Making preserved ginger is not simple as it requires a great deal of care and attention to quality. Only the youngest most tender stems of ginger should be used. It is difficult to compete with the well established Chinese and Australian producers, therefore processors are advised against making this product.

Dried ginger spice is produced from the mature rhizome. As the rhizome matures the flavour and aroma become much stronger. Dried ginger is exported, usually in large pieces which are ground into a spice in the country of destination. Dried ginger can be ground and used directly as a spice and also for the extraction of ginger oil and ginger oleoresin.

This brief outlines the important steps that should be taken pre-harvest and post-harvest to produce dried ginger.

Cultivation of ginger:

Ginger is a perennial plant but is usually grown as an annual for harvesting as a spice. It requires a warm and humid climate and a heavy rainfall of 150-300cm a year or plenty of irrigation. The plant can be cultivated from almost sea level to an altitude of 1500m above sea level. It thrives well in sandy or clay loam soil with good drainage and humus content. Ginger is best grown in partial shade and can be incorporated as an intercrop in coconut, coffee and orange plantations. Planting is done in April/May during the monsoon rains. Ginger is harvested by digging out the rhizomes when the tops have died down. The harvesting and processing of dried ginger varies in different countries.

Processing dried ginger:

There are two important factors to consider when selecting ginger rhizomes for processing:

a) Stage of maturity at harvest. Ginger rhizomes can be harvested from about 5 months after planting. At this stage they are immature. The roots are tender with a mild flavour and are suitable for fresh consumption or for processing into preserved ginger. After 7 months the rhizomes will become less tender and the flavour will be too strong to use them fresh. They are then only useful for drying. Mature rhizomes for drying are harvested between 8 and 9 months of age when they have a high aroma and flavour. If they are harvested later than this the fibre content will be too high.

b) Native properties of the type grown. Gingers grown in different parts of the world can differ in their native properties such as flavour, aroma and colour and this affects their suitability for processing. This is most important when preparing dried ginger, which needs rhizomes with a strong flavour and aroma. Himachel, Maran, Mananthody and Kuruppampady are good varieties for the preparation of dried ginger. Size of rhizome is an important factor to consider when drying ginger – medium sized rhizomes are the most suitable for drying. Large rhizomes often have a high moisture content which causes problems with drying.

Making dried ginger:

Dried ginger is available in a number of different forms – the rhizomes can be left whole or they may be split or sliced into smaller pieces to accelerate drying. Sometimes the rhizomes are killed by peeling or boiling them for 10 to 15 minutes, which causes the rhizomes to become blackened. They have to be whitened (bleached) by treating with lime or sulphurous acid. The only product which is acceptable for the UK market is cleanly peeled dried ginger.

The process for dried ginger:

* The fresh rhizome is harvested at between 8 to 9 months of age.
* The roots and leaves are removed and the rhizomes are washed.
* The rhizomes have to be ‘killed’ or inactivated. This is done by peeling, rough scraping or chopping the rhizome into slices (either lengthwise or across the rhizome). The skin should be peeled off using a wooden scraper made from bamboo to prevent staining the rhizome. Whole unpeeled rhizomes can be killed by boiling in water for 10 minutes.
* After peeling and washing, the rhizomes are soaked for 2-3 hours in clean water then soaked in a solution of 1.5-2.0% lime (calcium oxide) for 6 hours. This produces a lighter coloured (bleached) rhizome. After soaking, the rhizomes are drained.
* The rhizomes are dried. The traditional method is to lay the pieces on clean bamboo mats or on a concrete floor and sun-dry until a final moisture content of 10%. Drying may take anything from 7 to 14 days depending upon the weather conditions. During drying, the rhizomes lose between 60 and 70% in weight.
* In rainy conditions, a mechanical drier such as a tray drier should be used to accelerate the drying process. Sliced ginger pieces take only 5-6 hours to dry when a hot air drier is used. Whole peeled ginger rhizomes take about 16-18 hours to dry in a mechanical drier. It is important to monitor the air flow and temperature during drying. The drying temperature should not exceed 60°C as this causes the rhizome flesh to darken. See the Practical Action Technical Brief on drying for further information on the different types of drier available.
* After drying, the rhizomes are cleaned to remove any dirt, pieces of dried peel and insects. An air separator can be used for large quantities, but at the small scale it is probably not cost effective.
* The dried rhizomes should be packaged into air-tight, moisture proof packaging for storage or export.

Quality assurance of dried ginger:

Quality of the dried ginger is assessed by the appearance of the final product (colour, lack of mould or aflatoxin) and the aroma and flavour.

These qualities are influenced by a combination of pre- and post-harvest factors:

* The most important factor is the cultivar of ginger used as this determines the flavour, aroma, pungency and levels of essential oil and fibre.
* The stage or maturity of the rhizome at harvest determines its suitability for end use. Rhizomes that are 8-9 months old produce the best quality dried ginger as they have a good combination of aroma and pungency and not too much fibre.
* After harvest the rhizomes should be handled with care to prevent injury. They should be washed immediately after harvest to ensure a pale colour. The wet rhizomes should not be allowed to lie in heaps for too long as they will begin to ferment.
* Care should be taken when removing the outer cork skin. It is essential to remove the skin to reduce the fibre content, but if the peeling is too thick, it may reduce the content of volatile oil which is contained near the surface of the rhizome.
* During drying the rhizomes should lose about 60-70% of their weight and achieve a final moisture content of 7-12%. Care should be taken to prevent the growth of mould during drying.
* The use of a mechanical drier produces a higher quality, cleaner product. The drying conditions can be carefully controlled and monitored and the time taken to dry is considerably reduced.
* After harvest, the cleaning, peeling and drying processes should be carried out as quickly as possible to prevent the growth of bacteria and mould and to prevent fermentation. If the drying process takes too long there is a risk of the ginger becoming infected by aflatoxin or other fungus.
* Dried ginger should be stored in a dry place to prevent the growth of mould. Storage for a long time results in the loss of flavour and pungency.

Grading:

Quality specifications are imposed by the importing country and refer to the cleanliness specifications of the ginger rather than the quality. It is important to meet the minimum standards or the ginger will be rejected by the importers.

Grinding:

Grinding can be a method of adding value to a product. However, it is not advisable to grind spices as they are more vulnerable to spoilage after grinding. The flavour and aroma compounds are not stable and will quickly disappear from ground products. The storage life of ground spices is much less than for the whole spices. It is very difficult for the consumer to judge the quality of a ground spice. It is also very easy for unscrupulous processors to contaminate the ground spice by adding other material. Therefore most consumers, from wholesalers to individual customers, prefer to buy whole spices.

Dried ginger is usually exported whole and ground in the country of import.

Packaging:

Bulk rhizomes can be packed in jute sacks, wooden boxes or lined corrugated cardboard boxes for shipping. Dry slices or powder are packaged in multi-wall laminated bags. Some laminates are better than others due to film permeability. The packaging material should be impermeable to moisture and air. Sealing machines can be used to seal the bags. Attractive labels should be applied to the products. The label needs to contain all relevant product and legal information – the name of the product, brand name (if appropriate), details of the manufacturer (name and address), date of manufacture, expiry date, weight of the contents, added ingredients (if relevant) plus any other information that the country of origin and of import may require (a barcode, producer code and packer code are all extra information that is required in some countries to help trace the product back to its origin). See the Practical Action Technical Brief on labelling for further information on labelling requirements.

Storage:

Dried rhizomes, slices and splits should be stored in a cool place (10-15°C). At higher temperatures (23-26°C) the flavour compounds start to deteriorate and ginger loses some of its taste and aroma. The storage room should be dry and away from the direct sunlight. During storage the rhizomes should be protected from attack by insects and other pests. Natural pesticides such as the leaves of Glycosmis pentaphylla or Azadirachta indica can be added to the rhizomes to prevent damage from the cigarette beetle (Lasioderma serricome).

The storage room should be clean, dry, cool and free from pests. Mosquito netting should be fitted on the windows to prevent pests and insects from entering the room. Strong smelling foods, detergents and paints should not be stored in the same room.

Ginger oil distillation:

Ginger oil can be produced from fresh or dried rhizomes. Oil from the dried rhizomes will contain fewer of the low boiling point volatile compounds (the compounds that give ginger its flavour and aroma) as these will have evaporated during the drying process. The best ginger oil is obtained from whole rhizomes that are unpeeled.

Ginger oil is obtained using a process of steam distillation. The dried rhizomes are ground to a coarse powder and loaded into a still. Steam is passed through the powder, which extracts the volatile oil components. The steam is then condensed with cold water. As the steam condenses, the oils separate out of the steam water and can be collected. In India the material is re-distilled to get the maximum yield of oil. The yield of oil from dried ginger rhizomes is between 1.5 to 3.0%. The remaining rhizome powder contains about 50% starch and can be used for animal feed. It is sometimes dried and ground to make an inferior spice. For further information see the Practical Action Technical Brief on Essential oil distillation.

Source and photo courtesy of http://practicalaction.org